Arguments, whether life-changing or seemingly petty, are rarely enjoyable for either side involved. Although many of us fear confrontation, strong argumentation skills are essential in our day-to-day lives, and most of us continually work to improve and refine them. Despite the emotionally charged imagery often associated with arguing, the act itself isn’t inherently negative. Rooted in the Latin verb argurere, an argument, at its core, refers to the exchange of differing views intended to persuade others. Often, an argument can be as simple as debating with a friend which candy brand is the best or convincing a coworker that it’s worth trying a new restaurant. In many ways, arguing is a natural and necessary aspect of everyday communication.
Recently, however, as I reflect on my time at university, I’ve begun to recall the foundational courses that first taught me how to debate properly. Like most college students, I learned valuable skills in these classes, such as evaluating credible sources, organizing argument points, and responding thoughtfully to opposing views with rebuttals. Yet there seems to be a troubling shift in modern rhetoric, particularly in ongoing political debates and campaigns nationwide. Many discussions that could shape the future of our country seem driven less by public policy than by personal agendas. What once seemed like the civil exchange of ideas now becomes a competition to simply talk over one another.
More concerningly, however, the behavior of those most in power can easily influence our interpersonal relationships as well. This shift raises an important question: Should arguments prioritize understanding different viewpoints or winning? Although arguments do play an important role in everyday communication, they still require critical thinking to be used effectively. One of the most common ways debates lose validity is through the increasing use of logical fallacies.
What are logical fallacies?
A logical fallacy is most easily defined as a flaw that weakens an argument’s credibility. Though these fallacies are intended to persuade others, they ultimately undermine a claim’s integrity due to their faulty evidence. What makes logical fallacies especially difficult to identify is how often they’re used in our everyday lives. From televised debates, advertisements, and the media we consume, logical fallacies are present in most aspects of our day-to-day routine. It’s important not only to recognize logical fallacies when they appear in our lives but also to know how to avoid them in our own future arguments.
The earliest documentation of logical fallacies dates back to Ancient Greece. Aristotle, credited as the originator of the concept, identified thirteen original fallacies in his text De Sophisticis Elenchis. From there, the development of Aristotle’s work remained stagnant during the Dark Ages before being rediscovered by Medieval European scholars. Significant interest in logical fallacies was once again revived in the late twentieth century. Today, logical fallacies are an important subject in many fields, such as philosophy, debate, and rhetoric & composition. While this article covers common fallacies, many others exist, often unique to specific contexts or media.
Kettle Logic fallacy
The Kettle Logic fallacy, a term coined by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, refers to an anecdote from Sigmund Freud’s novel The Interpretation of Dreams (1900 ). In this anecdote, a man is accused of returning a now-damaged kettle after borrowing it from his neighbor. The man makes several statements to defend his innocence, each slightly different from the others. Ultimately, however, the claims contradict one another, making his argument far weaker in credibility to defend:
Initial Claim: “I already returned the kettle to you, and it was in fine condition.”
Second Claim: “The kettle already had holes when I borrowed it.”
Third Claim: “I never borrowed the kettle to begin with.”
The most effective way to avoid the Kettle Logic fallacy is to stay consistent with your main argument at all times. When a speaker makes conflicting statements to defend their point, it often indicates a deeper issue of a weak central claim. Although debates may naturally shift between related topics, the core ideas and views of an argument should always remain clear. Through keeping a consistent main argument, errors like the Kettle Logic fallacy can be avoided.
No True Scotsman fallacy
The No True Scotsman fallacy was first introduced by the English philosopher Anthony Flew in works such as Thinking About God (1970). Similar to the Kettle Logic fallacy, this concept also refers to an anecdote presented by its creator. In this anecdote, a speaker makes generalizations directed at an entire group of people – in this case, Scotsmen. More troubling, however, when confronted with conflicting evidence, the speaker simply redefines their initial statement to disregard the rebuttal entirely. Instead, the speaker insists that no “true” member of that group would behave in such a manner:
Person A: “No true Scotsman will put sugar in their porridge.”
Person B: “My uncle from Scotland likes sugar in his.”
Person A: “Then he is not a true Scotsman!”
Despite its unique title, the No True Scotsman fallacy is very much relevant in everyday arguments. Flawed generalizations extend beyond traits like ethnicity and nationality, but to virtually any group. Whether it’s defining what makes a “good” movie or “real” music fan, the No True Scotsman fallacy creates ambiguity by placing black-and-white labels on topics often far more complex. To avoid using the No True Scotsman fallacy, absolute statements should be kept to a minimum – especially when referring to an entire group of individuals. “Moving the goalpost” when challenged with conflicting evidence reflects a weak foundation of an argument’s claim. Making your claim as specific as possible and responding directly to rebuttals head-on is the best way to ensure an argument’s credibility.
False cause fallacy
The False Cause fallacy is an umbrella term for several related logical fallacies (post hoc ergo propter hoc, cum hoc ergo propter hoc, etc.) in which two separate events are falsely assumed to be connected. Although the fallacy goes by a variety of names depending on the context (order of events, number of events, etc.), the core concept traces back to one of the thirteen original fallacies identified by Aristotle. Though no universal anecdote is associated with the False Cause fallacy, it can apply to any scenario where an invisible connection is made between unrelated events:
What makes the False Cause fallacy especially deceptive is the role timing plays in making two events seem related. In fact, the rhetorical device of kairos relies on the power of timing (opportune moment) to persuade others. Deciding whether two events are related or coincidental isn’t easy, but it is necessary to ensure an argument’s credibility. An important rule of thumb when investigating is that correlation does not always equate to causation. Just because two events show similar trends does not necessarily mean they are the result of one another. Recognizing patterns is an important aspect of critical thinking and building a strong argument. However, these connections should be supported by evidence beyond a mere overlap in timing.
The best way to avoid this fallacy is to check credible sources to see whether two variables are related. For example, although there are many superstitions regarding cold remedies (wearing garlic, avoiding dairy products, etc.), not all are supported by scientific evidence, despite their seeming effectiveness. Researching the reasoning and resources that support the credibility of these treatments can help identify the most effective ways to cure a cold.
Appeal to Authority fallacy
Although using credible sources is the best way to prevent logical fallacies in an argument, it raises an important question: who can be considered a credible source today? The Appeal to Authority fallacy occurs when a claim is deemed true solely because of the speaker’s status. Rather than evaluating the evidence and reasoning behind an argument, greater weight is instead placed on the speaker’s reputation.
English philosopher John Locke first introduced the Appeal to Authority fallacy in his work An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689). Locke explores many concepts relevant to contemporary philosophy, including the relationship between social authority and self-autonomy. In his analysis, Locke suggests that just as much weight is placed on those in power to maintain unquestioned authority as on those who refuse to challenge them. This power dynamic is also depicted through the term, argumentum ad verecundiam, or “argument to modesty.” Since Locke’s studies were introduced, a core principle in academia has been to base judgments on logical evidence rather than on external authority:
“[I]t is not what the man of science believes that distinguishes him, but how and why he believes it. His beliefs are tentative, not dogmatic; they are based on evidence, not on authority or intuition.”
Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy
The best way to evaluate a source’s credibility is to assess both its expertise and the relevance of its field to the topic under debate. For example, while a scientist may have some knowledge on space exploration, a paleontologist may not be as knowledgeable on the topic as an astronomer or astrophysicist. Additionally, you can assess the relevance and credibility of the evidence by reviewing other experts’ findings in relation to your source. To best ensure your argument is trustworthy, it’s important to evaluate the expertise of the evidence used to best support your argument.
Handling future arguments
Debates, despite their social and cognitive benefits, can still be frustrating at times. As social media and, more broadly, our social climate increasingly prioritizes polarization over communication, it’s easy to get caught in the spiral. Despite external influences, however, we still have the power to choose how we approach these discussions within our daily lives.
Identifying logical fallacies is one of the best ways to help us judge which debates are meaningful and worth engaging in. Additionally, being aware of and avoiding these fallacies also helps improve our own argumentation skills. Although there are countless fallacies beyond those described here, knowing even some of the most common ones can improve our ability to recognize others in the future. While not always enjoyable, everyday arguments offer opportunities to gain new perspectives when we choose to engage with them thoughtfully.
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